Vehicles and Vehicle Travel

Security Training Module for NGOs

Produced for the OFDA/InterAction PVO Security Task Force

By Jan Davis, RedR
drawing on documentation produced by CARE, Save the Children, Harlan Hale, and Steve Penny

July 1998

Contents
Goal	
Learning Objectives	
Key Learning Points	
1.0  Introduction	
2.0  Vehicle management	
2.1  Vehicle selection	
2.2  Legal vehicle requirements	
2.3 Vehicle servicing and maintenance	
2.4 Vehicle deployment	
3.0 Driver management	
3.1 Driver employment	
3.2 Driver rules	
3.3 Driver meetings	
4.0 Preparation and journey planning	
4.1  General preparation	
4.2 Journey planning	
5.0  Movement procedures	
5.1 Vehicle and travel precautions	
5.2 Safety and accident procedures	
5.3 Procedures during a journey	
5.4 Check-points	
5.6 Traveling in convoy	
6.0 Emergency procedures	
6.1 Hijacking	
6.2 Fighting	24
Cross-fire	
Shelling/bombing	
Ambush	
6.3 Incident reporting	26
Appendices	
Glossary of Terms	
Bibliography	

Module	Vehicles and vehicle travel
Goal	
To minimize the risks associated with vehicles and vehicle travel in insecure environments.

Learning Objectives	

On completion of this module participants will be able to:

•	list key procedures in responsible vehicle management
•	explain the roles and responsibilities of drivers and passengers
•	describe measures to take in the preparation and planning of a journey
•	outline standard procedures regarding vehicle movements
•	describe possible responses to a range of hazardous situations

Key Learning Points
	
Guidelines - it is important to have clear, agreed and understood guidelines on vehicle use and management.

Accidents - automobile accidents are the number one cause of death among aid workers. Safe driving practices and competent vehicle management reduces the risk of accidents and engenders a responsible approach to vehicle use in an insecure environment.

Hazards - relief workers need to be aware of the potential hazards associated with vehicle use in an insecure environment.

Preparation - vehicles need to be maintained in a state of operational readiness; journeys need to be planned; and vehicle users must be prepared to respond to a range of possible incidents.

Responsibilities - there should be clear guidelines understood by everyone concerned on the roles and responsibilities of drivers, passengers, and managers.

Check - and check again: vehicles, drivers, journey plans, incident drills and response.

1.0  Introduction 

“…. at least 50% of all security incidents occur during travel.”
‘Security Awareness’, UNHCR, Geneva, 1995

The responsible management and operation of vehicles is critical to the effectiveness of most relief programs and especially important when working in an insecure environment. A vehicle is an essential working tool and it can be a vital means of escaping danger. It can also be a symbol that can incite a range of emotions from envy to hatred. A vehicle and its occupants can become targets for criminals, hijackers, protagonists in a conflict and for those who wish to make a protest or vent their anger. 

The risks to aid workers, their colleagues and beneficiaries related to the use of vehicles in insecure environments can be reduced by following clear guidelines. These guidelines embody what is accepted as good practice in ‘secure’ circumstances. But, unfortunately, it is sometimes the case that even in a secure environment such good practice is not always followed. Hence, automobile accidents are still the most frequent cause of death among aid workers - despite a range of hazards to which aid workers are increasingly exposed.

There is a collective responsibility to ensure guidelines on vehicle management and travel are effective. The manager has the responsibility to ensure the guidelines are: 
•	appropriate to the circumstances
•	explained to the staff and everyone concerned
•	understood and followed by the staff and everyone concerned, including the manager!

Individual members of the organization have a responsibility to ensure:
•	they understand and follow the guidelines
•	everyone they work with understands and follows the guidelines, including their seniors
•	the manager and colleagues receive feedback in the form of suggested revisions or additions to existing guidelines based on changing field conditions.

2.0  Vehicle management

2.1  Vehicle selection

Key points to consider in the selection and specification of appropriate vehicles:

•	Visibility - do you want to be identifiable as aid workers in an aid vehicle? In some circumstances this can be of benefit and afford protection. However, in other circumstances it makes the vehicle and occupants an easy target. If you do not want to be visible it will be preferable to use vehicles similar to those that are generally seen locally. This might also have an additional advantage that spares may be more available and local drivers and mechanics will be familiar with repairs and maintenance.  Some vehicles, especially new four-wheel drive vehicles are more likely to be hijacked. The use of commonly encountered two-wheel drive sedans, perhaps rented locally, can reduce the risk of hijacks.

•	Vehicle condition and reliability - it should go without saying that a reliable vehicle is essential. But a mechanic can only work with what is supplied and if the vehicle is not in a good condition to begin with then it is clearly an uphill struggle to keep it in a reliable state. All new vehicles should be road tested before delivery.

•	Standardize the vehicle fleet wherever possible.  A variety of different makes and models means the stocking of a wide range of spares, tires and special tools. Standardization ensures driver familiarity and makes fleet management and vehicle maintenance less demanding and more reliable.

•	Fuel availability - what kind of fuel is available: gasoline or diesel? Avoid being stranded in an insecure situation due to the difficulty of obtaining the correct fuel.

•	Diesel engines are usually preferable, even for light vehicles.  Diesel engines are generally more economical and reliable than gasoline engines.  Diesel fuel has a low fire risk compared to gasoline. Gasoline engines may be preferred where diesel is not available or is of poor quality, where good diesel workshop facilities are not available (gasoline engines need less specialized tools) or for operation in very cold climates.

•	Engine size - an oversized engine may result in speeding and dangerous driving in the hands of inexperienced drivers. Avoid turbo-charged diesels unless absolutely required for the conditions (e.g. high altitude). Turbo-charged engines require extra spare parts and add to the maintenance burden - or decrease reliability.

•	Two or four-wheel drive?  In many cases, a four-wheel drive (4x4) vehicle is essential. However, in dry conditions and where there are predominantly good tarmac roads a sturdy two-wheel drive vehicle may be adequate. Two-wheel drive vehicles are cheaper and consume significantly less fuel than the equivalent 4x4 model. 4x4 vehicles require more specialized maintenance and extra spare parts. They are also more susceptible to theft and hijacking. 

•	Long or short wheel base?  A long wheel base vehicle is more stable on poor roads and in off-road conditions. A longer wheel base has a higher capacity which can be important for carrying emergency equipment and rations. 

•	Tires - specify according to the terrain: tarmac, off-road, sand, snow.  Tube or tubeless.  Number of spare wheels and tires (at least two). Type of spare wheel mounting on vehicle - specify at least one internal anchor point for spare wheel (spare wheels attached to doors and hoods may cause damage on rough roads and are more prone to theft).

•	Electric windows and central door-locking - they can all be operated relatively quickly and from the driver’s seat. However, they can also fail at a vital moment when there is an electrical fault, unless there is a manual override.

•	Avoid automatic transmission - automatic transmission is not suitable for off-road use and, importantly, a battery is needed to start a vehicle with automatic transmission - it is not possible to push-start an automatic.

•	Fuel tanks - select high capacity standard or long range fuel tanks to ensure sufficient fuel carrying capacity for detours or evacuation routes. Fuel tanks can be supplemented with metal jerry cans.

•	Fuel cut-off - consider a hidden fuel cut-off switch so that if the vehicle is stolen it cannot be driven far due to the engine being starved of fuel.

•	Anti-theft devices - lockable wheel nuts and fuel filler cap(s) (usually opened with the ignition key); heavy duty steering lock.

•	Warning devices - modern vehicles often come equipped with standard warning devices (for example, a bleeping sound and/or flashing light when the ignition key is inserted and a door is open). This can be disconcerting at check-points and lead to misunderstandings. Therefore, consider de-activating such ‘safety’ devices.

2.2  Legal vehicle requirements

Ensure the correct papers for agency vehicles are acquired and kept up to date. There is sometimes a dilemma as to where the papers should be kept. If they are in the vehicle they can be produced when requested by officials on the road. However, papers can also be confiscated or stolen with the vehicle and, therefore, it may be preferable for an assigned driver to keep them on their person. Alternatively, keep vehicle papers in the office safe and/or make copies. The decision on where to keep vehicle papers depends on local requirements and circumstances. 

Where a government administrative system is operating then vehicle registration, tax and insurance clearly need to be kept up to date. If they are not kept up to date this can, at the least, lead to vehicles having to be taken out of service and possible fines imposed. At the worst, it can give unsympathetic officials the opportunity to harass and seize a vehicle and its occupants.  

Be clear on the extent of passenger insurance especially as regards the carrying of non-agency personnel such as government officials, staff of other agencies, and the general public.  

2.3 Vehicle servicing and maintenance

Servicing is the regular, planned inspection and preventive maintenance of essential equipment to keep a vehicle in good running order and so minimize breakdowns. It is clearly especially important to ensure vehicles are maintained in a reliable operational condition when working in an insecure environment. Servicing and maintenance may be carried out by directly employed staff (if the program is big enough) or by a pool arrangement with other agencies (sometimes involving a UN agency) or by direct contract with a commercial garage.

There is sometimes the temptation to run vehicles beyond their due service date when there is important work to be done and also in the early stages of a project when vehicles are new. This is ill-advised as sooner or later a vehicle will experience a breakdown - probably late afternoon when everyone has to be home by a certain time before the curfew starts. Not only the occupants but also recovery personnel are put at risk. It is also unwise to rely on drivers to bring a vehicle into the workshop when they feel it is the right time to do so - it will probably be at the end of the month on pay day when all the drivers will want their vehicle serviced! 

The manager has the responsibility to ensure there is a servicing and maintenance schedule, that everyone knows what it is, and that it is followed. It is the responsibility of staff and drivers to ensure their vehicles meet servicing deadlines.

Drivers are also responsible for the regular checking of vehicles before traveling and this is covered in more detail under ‘Driver management’.

2.4 Vehicle deployment

Try to assign vehicles to particular tasks or projects and make one driver responsible for each vehicle. This fosters responsibility for a particular vehicle where, if the vehicle is not properly looked after, the users will bear the consequences of any vehicle mismanagement. In cases where vehicles need to be shared it is even more important to maintain the log book up to date and ensure regular servicing and maintenance takes place.

A movements board in the office can indicate the deployment of vehicles on a particular day with driver, occupants, job, destination and estimated time of return clearly marked. Times of radio checks and vehicle location at each check can also be recorded. This is a useful and visual way of keeping track of vehicles and personnel. However, in security sensitive locations think about the information that is displayed and whether what is displayed, particularly advance information, might in itself be a security risk.

3.0 Driver management

3.1 Driver employment

Project staff who have been busy all day coping in difficult circumstances are probably not in the best state to then drive a vehicle back to base along a potentially hazardous route through frustrating check-points. Employed drivers take the strain of driving and ensure there are always two people in a vehicle when traveling in the field.

There are potentially several advantages in recruiting a local driver:
•	Familiarity with the conditions, terrain, and routes.
•	Competence in a local language can help in negotiating passage through check-points and in the collection of information on project and security matters.
•	A lot of time may be spent traveling and a local driver can help someone from outside the area learn about local customs, history and culture. 
•	An extra pair of eyes and ears.

However, there are also potential drawbacks in employing local drivers:
•	In civil conflicts a driver from a particular ethnic background, nationality, religion, clan or political grouping may be personally put at risk and endanger passengers if he or she became embroiled in a dispute. A dispute might even be initiated because of the driver’s background or arise as a result of some other incident, such as an accident involving vehicles.
•	A driver speaking a ‘local’ language could be put at a disadvantage if it was the ‘wrong’ language, or dialect, as far as regional disputes are concerned. It may also mean that not all the occupants of a vehicle are able to follow a vital conversation or negotiation.
•	Driver interests or motivation may be suspect (perhaps an informant for a particular faction?). A local driver might be susceptible to pressure to supply information or act in a certain way. This is an issue common to all locally employed staff.

Clearly, the decision to employ local drivers will have to be made in the context of local circumstances.

Carefully select drivers according to a system that is seen to be fair and impartial.  A driving license does not necessarily indicate competence. A proper assessment of a driver is an essential part of the recruitment process.  Where competent drivers are in short supply it may be necessary to provide training.  Time spent on training is well worthwhile. Employ drivers on a trial basis, say one month, before an appointment is confirmed. Whenever possible, it is advisable to assign drivers to specific vehicles. Individual responsibility encourages care and attention to a vehicle.

A suggested driver selection procedure follows a two-stage process:  
1) 	Assess candidates’ sight, knowledge of vehicles, safety, and ability to complete logs. 
2) 	Candidates who pass the first stage are given a test drive.  

3.2 Driver rules

Rules for drivers can be included as part of a driver's contract of employment. The topics covered will depend on local circumstances but might include:

•	Driver responsibilities - daily and weekly checks; keeping the vehicle clean; reporting defects; completing the log book; reporting of security related observations or incidents. 

•	Vehicle refueling - when and how. For example, ensure vehicle is always fueled at the end of the day.

•	Breakdown and accident procedures - what to do, who to inform.

•	Security incidents - what to do, who to inform. 

•	Grounds for dismissal - consumption of intoxicating substances (alcohol, drugs); falling asleep at the wheel; theft of fuel, oil or equipment; negligence resulting in an accident; use of vehicle for private commercial purposes.

•	Maximum driving time - e.g. 8 hours per day followed by a minimum rest period of 6 hours.

•	Safety rules - the weari********************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************************nd safety of driver and passengers.  

A list of driver responsibilities can be kept in each log book.

3.3 Driver meetings

Drivers can share information about road conditions, vehicle performance and procedures at drivers' meetings. Such meetings are also an opportunity to reflect on the general security situation. This helps each driver and the manager to keep a broad overview. It can also be an opportunity for the manager to reiterate drivers' rules, safety and security guidelines, and accident, refueling and servicing procedures.  Driving in an insecure environment can be stressful and it is as important to monitor the physical and emotional state of drivers as it is other staff.

4.0 Preparation and journey planning

Impassable routes, unnecessary vehicle breakdowns and security hazards can all be the result of journeys made without adequate preparation and planning. This can waste time and, in the worst scenario, put at risk oneself, colleagues and, possibly, a rescue team. Therefore, ensure journeys are adequately prepared and planned.

4.1  General preparation

Be aware of the general security situation: the predictability and frequency of security threats, locations and situations to avoid, and the various people, organizations and groups operating in the region.

In many cases it is good practice to clearly identify a vehicle by marking with the agency logo and/or call sign on the doors and, possibly, roof. Flags may be flown showing the agency emblem. In other cases it may be wise to keep a lower profile by using a common unmarked vehicle.

Ensure the documents (or copies of documents) required when traveling in a vehicle are either in the vehicle or with the driver. These may include the vehicle registration, road tax, insurance, driver’s license, permission to travel/transit, and so on.  It may be advisable for the agency, or local authority,  to issue traveling staff with an official letter which describes the work of the agency and authorizes travel.

Individual team members may also carry personal identification (ID card, passport or a photocopy), driving license, and less sensitive aspects of a security plan and procedures.

Where there is a working telephone system include in each vehicle a card with important telephone numbers. It may also be helpful for individuals not conversant with the local language to carry cards of key phrases.

All vehicles should be suitably equipped for journeys. See the accompanying list of equipment that could be included. Select items according to the situation.

   
Suggested items to include in a vehicle working in hazardous situations	
		
a vehicle tool kit	high lift jack and handle	
vital spares (e.g. fan belt, radiator hose, fuses)	tire pump, pressure gauge and tire repair kit	
owners manual (in an appropriate language)	battery 'jump' leads	
fire extinguisher	top-up oil	
first aid kit	VHF/HF radio	
tow rope	20 liter plastic jerry can full of water	
warning triangle	tinned food rations	
20 liter metal jerry cans with pourer for fuel if required for extended journeys	security flags with mounting pole 
(if visibility is important)	
		
Petrol engined vehicles:		
Spare spark plugs and distributor cap
Abrasive paper for cleaning contact points	Spark plug spanner, feeler gauges and small wire brush (for cleaning spark plug)	
		
According to the terrain:		
sand/mud ladders and shovels	set of low-pressure tires (for muddy terrain)	
mud flaps on all wheels	tire chains (for snow or mud)	
chaff guard for radiator (for extensive bush work)		

In addition to making sure the vehicle is prepared for the trip, make sure YOU are prepared for the trip, i.e. if you get a flat tire, do you know how to fix it?  If not, are you travelling with someone who will know how to fix it?  If you need to change the oil, or the car becomes overheated, do you know what to do?

Security forces and check-point personnel may stop a vehicle and question the driver and other occupants individually about where they are going and what they are doing. It is therefore important that your driver and other team members in the vehicle are briefed on your 
mission and intended schedule. They should also be able to clearly explain the agency’s humanitarian role. Everyone should be able to recount the same facts about the agency and the reasons for traveling to avoid giving confused messages which might foster suspicion. 

Be sure you know what is being transported on the vehicle so that when asked at a check-point you can explain what is in each box. Uncertainty or, even worse, ignorance, can create suspicion. Do not accept requests to carry unfamiliar or unknown cargo. Do not feel obliged to carry items for others if it poses a personal risk. It is better to appear impolite than to land yourself in trouble.

Ensure everyone traveling, including yourself, carries the necessary personal papers: identity card, passport (or copy of relevant pages), travel permit, letter of introduction, etc.

4.2 Journey planning

Plan each journey. Seek specific advice on the safety of the route, potential hazards, road conditions, check-point locations, any authorization and special documentation required. Are there any no-go areas or curfews? If available, consult maps of the area and estimate distances and travelling times. Allow plenty of time to arrive before nightfall and the start of curfews. Take available maps and a compass with you on the journey.

Identify critical locations along the route: towns, factional areas, known check-points and include any possible time delays in the planning.

For safety and security reasons certain guidelines advise, or require, the submission of a formal trip plan for long distance travel or for travel to remote or insecure areas. The trip plan serves two purposes: 1) it requires the traveller to think through the journey before setting off, and 2) it provides a written record of  the planned journey. A journey can then be monitored and appropriate action taken if something goes wrong and assistance is required.

See the check list for what might be included in a trip plan.

Trip plan check-list

vehicle details 
driver and passengers 
call signs (if fitted with a radio) 
origin and destination of journey 
the intended route 
planned stops along the route 
contact points along the route 
estimated time of departure ETD) 
estimated time of arrival (ETA) 
estimated time of return (ETR) 
other reporting procedures

Only submit the trip plan to those who need to know: to the person responsible in your agency and the agency responsible for coordinating overall security. If appropriate, inform the destination station of the ETA. A trip plan gives the traveler a sense of security in knowing what to expect and knowing that others will be monitoring your movements so that appropriate action can be taken should something go wrong. Do not discuss travel plans with anyone who does not need to know.

There should be some system of logging out on departure and logging in on return. This is often a ‘movements board’ in the agency office which indicates at a glance how each vehicle is deployed and details of the occupants and mission. The movements board should be regularly updated based on radio situation reports. But beware of announcing movements, such as a departure, over the radio as publicizing movements can in itself be a security hazard. Ensure communications equipment is tested before departure and during the journey.

On longer journeys, or those that may be subject to delay, it is advisable to carry water, food, clothing and overnight gear, which may include sleeping bags.

5.0  Movement procedures

5.1 Vehicle and travel precautions

Vehicle parking - vehicles should always be parked facing out (ready to depart), without blocking the exit of any other vehicle, with a full tank of fuel, and the keys readily accessible.

Know your vehicle
Check the log book for any pertinent comments:
•	When was the vehicle last serviced and when is the next due? 
•	What recent problems has the vehicle experienced so that you can watch for any recurrence? 
The driver should carry out a daily vehicle check before departure and the vehicle team leader may also check again. 
A thorough inspection of the vehicle and all necessary equipment, tools, and documents should be made before a journey.  If the vehicle is not considered adequately prepared or road-worthy, then either:
1) 	delay the trip until the vehicle is in condition and passes inspection, or 
2) 	select another suitable vehicle that passes inspection.  
It is better to arrive late than not at all.

Approaching, entering and leaving a vehicle 

It is good practice to establish a cautious routine when approaching, entering and leaving a vehicle. This need not take long and is based on simple precautionary measures.

When approaching a vehicle: 

•	Check the area around the vehicle, including up and down the street, for suspicious looking people or objects.
•	Check there is nothing in the tire wells.
•	Check for sharp objects in the tires or in the tire tracks.
•	Ensure that the hood is fully closed and that the latch is secured.
•	Examine the exhaust pipe for obstructions.
•	Examine under the vehicle for suspicious objects/obstructions.
•	Examine the car’s interior, especially the back seat and floors, before getting in.

On entering the vehicle:

•	Lock the doors.
•	Adjust the mirrors, particularly side mirrors which may have been bumped whilst away.
•	Wind up windows so that no more than a 75mm (three inch) gap is left open (grenade threat).
•	Ensure everyone wears a seat belt except in exceptional circumstances such as the danger of cross fire or air attack when quick exit of the vehicle might be necessary.
•	Check, or reset, the tripometer so that you can keep track of where you are.
•	When switched on, check the instruments are working and they indicate satisfactory fuel, oil pressure, battery charging and water temperature (when warmed up).

Upon arrival at a destination:

If feasible, circuit your arrival point (one full block) before coming to a halt. Whilst doing so carry out a visual check of your immediate environment and pay particular attention to the general location where the car will come to its final stop.   Ask yourself:

•	Is there anything suspicious or unusual, such as vehicles or pedestrians parked or standing, with no obvious reason to be there?
•	Are there any obstacles, such as a bush or a wall, that could conceal a would-be attacker or thief?
•	Are any lights, such as in a building or other vehicle or street lights, on or off when they should or shouldn’t be?
•	Are any entrances such as gates, doors or windows, open or closed when they should or shouldn’t be?
•	Is anyone, including a police officer/security guard, approaching or gesturing toward you?  Is there an obvious reason why he/she should or should not?
•	Is the guard at his post?  If not, why not?
•	If you are the least bit suspicious or uncertain, particularly when pulling up to your own home, don’t stop or pull into the gate.  Don’t even slow down.  Instead, turn the car around or drive past at the same rate of speed until you arrive at the nearest safe location to place a phone, or radio call, to the appropriate person (spouse/household member, neighbor, employer, security personnel, etc.) to check on the situation.

Leaving the vehicle:

•	Do another quick 360 degree visual sweep of your environment and check your mirrors before turning off the engine and opening the door.
•	Determine whether anyone can witness your actions, such as making a radio call or taking valuables from the trunk or vehicle.
•	Never leave anything behind or stored in the trunk that is of personal value, or that may give away your identity, address or travel plans, such as work or personal documents, vehicle registration or maps. It may be necessary to carry certain vehicle documents whilst traveling, such as the vehicle registration, but it may be unwise to leave them in the vehicle whilst parked. An assigned driver may carry them instead. This will depend on the nature of potential threats and local circumstances.
•	Avoid features such as interior lights that remain on for a few minutes after the driver has departed – they may attract the curious to examine the contents of your car.
•	Separate the ignition key from all others, and never leave the fuel cap and door/boot/trunk keys with non-agency personnel.

5.2 Safety and accident procedures

Vehicle related accidents pose one of the greatest dangers in emergency programs. Implement and follow safety guidelines to minimize the risks.

•	Regulate vehicle speed according to road conditions. Observe speed limits and warning signs. Do not be afraid to tell a driver to slow down! Speeding should be a disciplinary offense.
•	Do not drink, or take drugs, and drive.
•	Keep a reasonable distance from other vehicles and avoid ‘tail-gating’.
•	Avoid driving in heavy rain storms. Stop and wait for it to pass over, if necessary.
•	Driving more than 8 hours per day with reasonable breaks should be the exception, not the rule.
•	Avoid night driving wherever possible. Driving at night is riskier than during the day. Several reasons: vision is impaired, animals may seek relatively warmer tarmac, other vehicles may be poorly equipped and have limited or no lights, vehicles stopped on the road without lights, the possibility of more check-points at night, curfew or travel restrictions, the chance of heightened criminal, bandit or military activity.
•	Every vehicle should carry a first aid kit and drivers should be trained how to use it. 
•	Use a guide when reversing if the view is restricted, especially truck drivers.
•	Loads should be properly secured to prevent movement.
•	Ensure drivers are aware of the maximum load carrying capacity - not in figures but in some practical way e.g. 'a space of four fingers between the axle and the bump stop'.
•	Loads should be evenly distributed and placed as low as possible. 
•	Place a heavy individual weight to the middle of a vehicle.
•	Roof rack carrying capacity is very limited - only carry light items on a roof rack.

Follow the daily vehicle checks and check additional equipment in preparation for journeys. Do not assume everything has been checked beforehand. It is worth the extra few minutes to double-check with the driver. Ensure sufficient quantities of fuel, drinking water and, possibly, food are included in case of delays, breakdowns and detours.

Establish a procedure to follow when an accident occurs and ensure all drivers understand it.  

In the event of an accident a key decision is whether to stop and assist injured persons. There is no hard and fast rule and it very much depends on the situation: how serious, the number of people around, whether you were directly involved, etc. Try to assess the demeanor of  people who have gathered around the accident. Are they concerned for the welfare of the injured? Do they appear an angry mob who may turn on you as someone responsible for what happened, even if only connected to another agency vehicle that might have been involved? 

Beware that a person may appear ‘injured’ but that person may have been planted to cause a vehicle to stop for an ambush or robbery. It may be advisable to keep going but to report the incident to the local police or military and inform your agency office.

Record all relevant details of an accident :
-  Location, date and time of the day, weather conditions.
-  Names, addresses/contacts of those involved and witnesses.
-  Driver license, vehicle registration and insurance details.
-  Description of the accident (draw a sketch).
-  Record any injuries to people and animals and damage to property.

It is important not to become involved in any instant settlement at the scene of an accident.

5.3 Procedures during a journey

Observe the safety and accident procedures described previously.

Do not travel alone - travel with at least one other person when traveling through moderate to high risk areas or for extended journeys. You are better equipped to handle a problem if there are two of you (e.g. vehicle breakdown). Statistically, persons traveling alone, especially women, are far more likely to be the targets of crime.

Predictability of routine - following a routine makes you a much easier target for crime. It is important to vary the routes you take (where feasible) and the times at which you take them.

Communications - test the radio before setting off. Use the radio to report progress. If the driver is also the radio operator then the vehicle should be brought to a standstill before the radio is used. As there should be at least two people then the driver can drive and someone else operate the radio.

Lifts in vehicles - establish what the agency policy is on carrying passengers and giving lifts. Insurance should cover any authorized passengers. It is usual to absolutely forbid the carrying of personnel with weapons and in military uniform. It may be helpful to obtain an official letter from an appropriate authority explaining the policy on giving lifts. The letter to be used by all drivers to assist in refusing requests for lifts. This may help local drivers in particular who may be under greater pressure than expatriates to give lifts to friends, officials and the military. It is important to follow up cases where drivers have been forced to carry unauthorized personnel to prevent the practice becoming commonplace. A sensitive strategy should be followed working through the appropriate officials, military or factional leaders, clan elders, etc.

Verify security situation - stop to verify the security situation with local people, officials (police and army) and other agency vehicles met along the route.

Leaving the road - when stopped, avoid getting out and leaving the road. This increases the level of risk due to mines, unexploded ordnance, robbery and abduction.

Refer to your journey plan - if you have made adequate preparation then you should have a good idea of what to expect on the journey. This can serve to prevent problems as anything out of the ordinary should be noticed.  For example, if you know that there should be a check-point at a particular place (e.g. at a bridge, before entering a town) and that check-point is not there, or is unmanned, then you should observe the surrounding area before proceeding.  Do you see anyone else (pedestrians, vehicles)?  There may have been some security incident that has caused the check-point personnel to depart.  Make radio contact and report the situation before proceeding. If possible, ask local people and proceed with caution.

Similarly, if there is a “new” check-point where one is usually not located then report over the radio and then approach with extra caution and look for indications that the check-point is either legitimate (uniformed police, official signs, other vehicles stopped) or it is there for illegitimate purposes (impromptu equipment, non-uniformed personnel, few or no other vehicles stopped).

5.4 Check-points

It is important to distinguish between the different types of check-points. In normal circumstances check-points are designed to observe and control vehicle circulation; examine the road worthiness of vehicles; ensure compliance with driver and vehicle documentation, and to check for stolen cars, unauthorized drivers and transport of contraband.  In insecure areas legitimate check-points also serve to identify vehicle occupants and the reason for transiting the area. They are also to check for the transport of guns, explosives, or combatants.  Personnel at authorized check-points, therefore, have a job to do, it may not be that pleasant (especially in extreme weather conditions) and the check-point personnel may feel more at risk than yourself. If you are co-operative, patient and polite, all your papers are correct and you have a legitimate job to do then it is in the interests of all concerned to speed you on your way as swiftly as possible. 

However, in many countries personnel on authorized check-points can be underpaid (or not paid at all), frustrated, scared and they do not see why you should proceed without question or without some compensation to them. In this situation it is important to remain in the right and to stress the legitimacy of your position.

Another category of potentially more hazardous check-point is the impromptu barrier erected by unauthorized or irregular forces for a variety of possible purposes: defining the limits of a territory, extortion, robbery, car-jacking, assault, kidnapping and/or execution/assassination. 

It is therefore, important to recognize the difference between a legal, sanctioned check-point designed to protect the public safety and a check-point erected for the personal benefit and gain of the check-point personnel.

It is potentially dangerous to lay down strict guidelines on behavior at different types of check point since this will vary from country to country. For example, it may be customary to keep the engine running in one location but it may give the wrong signal in another situation. Therefore, on arrival in a new situation find out where the check-points are located and ask about the accepted form of behavior. Be aware that check-points can vary from an official red and white custom made barrier to a piece of string or stones across a track. Therefore, before traveling find out how to recognize the usual forms of local check-point.

Notwithstanding what has been said above, the accompanying box suggests possible conduct at a check-point but this should always be checked against recommended local practice.

Suggested check-point behavior

Important note: 
even though you may have experience from elsewhere, always check local guidelines on check-point behavior before embarking on a journey for the first time in a new location.

•	You may establish a procedure to radio your position to your agency base on approaching each check-point.
•	During the approach quickly appraise the situation and decide on a response.
•	If something looks suspicious then keep your distance, hold back and covertly report by radio.
•	Agree before reaching the check-point who in the vehicle is going to speak and what you are going to say. Ensure everyone has the same story as unintentional conflicting remarks can create suspicion.
•	Take off sunglasses before stopping. Turn off radio/tape. At night, turn off headlights well before check point and turn on an interior light.
•	Slow down. You may not need to stop unless asked to do so – NGO vehicles may be automatically waved through. 
•	Keep a reasonable distance between vehicles. If there is an incident then a vehicle behind can report problems and hopefully evade danger.
•	Be sure you understand the signals given by check-point personnel (e.g. are they waving me on or into the side of the road?). Stop if unsure.
•	Be friendly, co-operative and alert.
•	Have all your documents in order – passport/identity card, vehicle papers, driving license, permit to travel, cargo manifest.
•	Show identification if requested, but try not to hand it over.
•	Keep your hands visible at all times. Do not make any sudden movements that could be misinterpreted. Explain what you are going to do first (e.g. “I have to get my papers from the glove compartment”).
•	Never willingly surrender your advantage.  Unless otherwise indicated:
•	Keep your doors locked.
•	Stay in your vehicle unless strongly requested to get out and then try to remain close to the vehicle.
•	Only switch off the engine if requested or it is the norm to do so.
•	Open windows just enough to talk through and pass documents.
•	Avoid bribes, ‘a dash’, at all costs. Find out what the local ‘customs’ are prior to getting into a compromising situation.
•	Even if you don’t smoke, carry cigarettes and matches, or pens as small acceptable ‘gifts’ when asked “have you got something for me?”
•	If at all possible, refuse lifts to armed or uniformed personnel.
•	Do not carry contraband: drugs, banned alcohol, undeclared currency, pornography, restricted items.  If vehicle and/or baggage is searched, observe closely to prevent unauthorized removal and/or planting of any items.
•	Protest strongly, but calmly and politely, at the removal/confiscation of any items from the vehicle or occupants – but do not resist if the guard is persistent, violent or armed.
•	Avoid looking back after passing through a check-point as this can create suspicion if witnessed. Drive away at a normal speed.
•	When out of view of the check-point and if it is agreed procedure then report clearance of the check-point by radio.

Avoid transiting check-points in the late afternoon in tense conflict situations. In many countries soldiers at check-points may alleviate tension, or boredom, by drinking or taking drugs.  In the late afternoon they may be intoxicated and prone to over-react to otherwise normal behavior, or they may openly threaten and extort.

Many check-points are legitimate and they can be used to your advantage. Non-threatening check-point personnel can be a good source of information concerning the road conditions, recent incidents and possible risks ahead. They can help to update your broad picture of the security situation. 

Soldiers may be assigned to a check-point over a period of time. It is an opportunity to establish a rapport which can be beneficial in a number of ways. Obtaining helpful information on the security situation is one potential benefit. Another is if the general situation does take a turn for the worse then soldiers who have got to know you, even in a small way, may be more understanding of what you are trying to do and more likely to be helpful, or even protective. It is potentially dangerous, however, if you become accustomed  to being waved through a check-point without stopping and without checking with the personnel. One day the check-point personnel will change and you will have to go through the routine of re-introducing yourself and explaining what you are doing. It will not be the first time an aid vehicle will have been fired upon simply because you have become complacent and fail to stop on the day the personnel change!

5.6 Traveling in convoy

Convoys are organized groups of vehicles (passenger, cargo or a mix) that travel together from one point to another for safety and security reasons.  Convoys may be escorted by security personnel (host country military, UN peacekeepers, multinational forces) or may be “protected” under UN flag, Red Cross logo, or any other acknowledged symbol.

For guidance on armed escorts see the module on “Armed protection”.

Traveling in convoy adds time to a journey as the convoy takes time to organize and vehicles can only travel as fast as its slowest member. Small group vehicle movements are preferable for flexibility and efficiency but it may be necessary to drive in larger convoys for safety and enhanced security.

One modification of the convoy is traveling in tandem where two vehicles agree to travel together for safety.  This is suggested whenever possible, so that each vehicle can count on some help in the event of an accident, breakdown or something worse.

Consider the image projected when weighing up the merits of convoy travel. The sight of a convoy of ten, brightly painted four wheel drive vehicles and trucks in good condition with healthy, well fed, well clothed, relatively wealthy occupants will engender a range of mixed emotions by observers and check-point personnel. This can be contrasted with the impact two agency vehicles traveling together might have. There are clearly good reasons to choose either of the two options depending on the circumstances.

Planning a convoy

A convoy must have a leader who is responsible for the management of the convoy. In planning the convoy, the convoy leader has the following responsibilities:

•	Authorization may need to be sought from the relevant authorities and a detailed travel plan provided to the relevant responsible individuals. Local authorities along the route may need to be informed of the convoy (details, timings, objectives). However, this procedure will vary depending on the country and security situation. Travel plans should not be shared with anyone who does not need to know them.

•	Ensure that information is obtained about the area to be transited. Assess the current situation including the terrain, road conditions, weather and security. If possible, reconnoiter the route before planning the convoy.

•	Estimate the distance to be traveled and divide the journey into sections. Determine the estimated time of arrival (ETA) for each section. Identify locations where the convoy will stop to rest. The plan should also include alternative routes which also need to be checked.

•	Prepare contingency plans in the event of an accident, medical evacuation, vehicle breakdown, etc. Include procedures for aborting the operation.

•	Do not travel after dark. Ensure that all timings enable the convoy to reach a selected location well before nightfall.

•	Ensure vehicle weight and height do not exceed bridge specifications.

•	List any contact persons on the route and at the destination. Obtain information about other agencies working in the area.

•	Prepare a full list of convoy vehicles including the registration numbers and the names of the drivers to be assigned to each vehicle. Decide on the position of each vehicle in the convoy with slower vehicles towards the front.

•	Prepare a full list of all persons in the convoy and assign responsibilities.

•	Make the necessary arrangements if it has been decided to employ an armed escort. For guidance on armed escorts see the module on “Armed protection”.

Large convoys carrying relief materials will include a convoy leader, cargo trucks, and a vehicle for mechanics, tools and spare parts. Passenger convoys may be necessary for the relocation or resettlement of refugees or for the evacuation of personnel. Convoys transporting a large number of people will include the following vehicles: 
•	convoy leader (4WD vehicle)
•	passenger trucks or buses (to carry people and their belongings)
•	cargo truck(s) (for oversized luggage, blankets, shelter material, etc)
•	re-supply truck (water, fuel, etc)
•	spare truck(s) (empty to take passengers from a disabled passenger carrying vehicle)
•	ambulance (or vehicle equipped with first aid kit/medical equipment and medical staff)
•	mechanics vehicle (to carry mechanics with tools and spares to repair trucks/buses)

Trucks used for carrying passengers must be suitably prepared for the journey by placing mattresses, blankets or, if nothing else is available, earth or sand to deaden the impact of rough roads. Some form of shelter from the elements (sun or rain) should be provided. Truck drivers must be briefed on the careful handling of their vehicles when carrying people instead of freight.

Convoys of six to eight vehicles are easier to manage than large convoys. They are also able to travel faster. Therefore, it may be advisable to organize several smaller convoys rather than one large convoy.

Follow clear procedures for traveling in convoy and stress the need for convoy discipline.  Convoy procedures will depend on each situation and the support available.  See the accompanying box for examples of convoy procedures.

Examples of convoy procedures

•	Arrive at the marshaling point early (one hour before). Organizing the departure of a convoy can take some time and late arrivals will delay departure of the entire convoy.
•	All drivers and members of the convoy should be briefed on the command structure, route, convoy procedures (check-points, rest stops, etc), contingency plans (in the event of a security incident, medical emergency or breakdown), action on arrival, radio or signaling procedures, and timings. 
•	All vehicles should be checked for road-worthiness and safety of loads. Vehicles should have their own equipment for repairs and changing wheels. 
•	Check that all vehicles start with a full tank of fuel.
•	Ensure there are adequate supplies of food and water for the occupants of each vehicle.
•	Radio communications should be checked before starting out and periodically along the route.
•	Decide on a time schedule for radio checks with base.
•	If the convoy is being escorted ensure the security escort and convoy leader can communicate.
•	The driver of the vehicle in front should always keep the vehicle behind in view.  In dusty conditions, frequent stops may need to be made at agreed intervals to ensure that everyone is still together.  Driving with lights may assist in keeping visual contact.
•	The convoy control vehicle travels at, or near, the front (the precise position varies depending on the convoy).
•	The lead vehicle keeps to an agreed convoy speed.
•	An advance party may go ahead to check security and road conditions and prepare for arrival.
•	There should be agreed times to stop and check vehicles and loads.
•	Select stopping locations carefully - assess from a security point of view.
•	If one vehicle is stopped, the entire convoy should come to a halt.
•	When the convoy sets off after being stopped at a checkpoint keep vehicles close together and moving steadily to prevent interference with any vehicle as it passes through the checkpoint.
•	Expect breakdowns and have agreed procedures to deal with them.  All vehicles must stop while repairs are being made.  Alternative actions: tow, recover by base workshop, or temporarily abandon.
•	If a truck convoy is delivering to locations along a route, agree upon a waiting system so that unloading truck drivers do not have to “catch up” or return to base on their own.
•	Avoid bunching up and tail-gating.  Due to the slow speed of the convoy, rear-end accidents are more frequent if vehicles travel too close together.
•	Avoid getting strung out, especially on mountainous or roads with many bends where it is possible to lose sight of leading or trailing vehicles.  Vehicles should keep an agreed distance between each other and follow in the tracks of the vehicle ahead.
•	One vehicle (the control vehicle) plus at least one other should have radio contact with the base and with each other.  For those vehicles not equipped with radio communications within the convoy, agree to a system of signals using headlights and/or horns.  These signals should indicate if a stop is required, emergency repairs are needed, or if consultation is required.
•	Upon arrival at the destination, the home base should be advised of time and condition of arrival and informed of any problems encountered along the route.

On completion of  a convoy operation it is useful to hold a de-briefing with those concerned to determine how the convoy could operate better in the future. For unusual or one-off convoys it may be helpful to prepare a report on the operation to assist others planning similar operations. 

6.0 Emergency procedures

6.1 Hijacking

The presence of armed gangs, either rebels or bandits, has greatly increased the possibility of vehicle hijacking (or car-jacking as it is sometimes known).  Hijacking and other forms of armed robbery may increase at the end of a conflict with the demobilization of combatants.  Demobilized combatants may retain access to their weapons and have little in the way of alternative employment or means of income. Hijacking can occur when you are stopped at a routine location (intersection, stop sign, parking or entering your vehicle), or it can occur while driving (forced to the side of the road by another vehicle). 

What contributes to the risk of hijacking?

•	Traveling through suspect or unknown areas at night. 
•	Traveling alone. 
•	Conspicuously displaying items of value in your vehicle (or on your person).
•	Predictability of routine.  Do not develop predictable patterns during the working day or during free time.  Do not leave your home, agency office or workplace at the same time each day and follow the same route because this will only make you more susceptible to those interested in targeting you.

What can help protect against the risk of hijacking?
 
Look out for indicators of a possible hijacking:
•	A vehicle with two or more occupants following closely, or alongside, maintaining the same speed as you.
•	Animated conversation or gestures between vehicle occupants.
•	A vehicle trailing behind your vehicle at a constant distance.  If you slow down does the vehicle behind you pass?  Is there a reason why it does not?  
•	Suspicious persons loitering along the roadside (sometimes on both sides of the road) in high-risk areas, especially at stop signs and traffic lights, and possibly signaling to each other.
•	Someone deliberately bumps or rams your vehicle.

Become familiar with the hijacking threat in your area through briefings by security personnel and local reports. Find out what techniques are commonly employed:
•	Roadblocks or staged accidents?
•	Attacks at road junctions?
•	Cutting in front of a moving vehicle?
•	Bumping into, boxing-in, or running vehicles off the road?
•	Bogus emergency vehicles?
•	Bogus government officials / police officers?
•	Attacks at residence entry gates? 
•	Warning shots fired into the air to halt vehicles?

Try to avoid the times, locations and vehicles favored by hijackers.

To the extent feasible, do not travel alone, particularly if you are a woman. Hijackers are less likely to confront a vehicle occupied by two or more people.

Always survey in advance any location where you will be required to slow down or stop your vehicle.  Note anything out of the ordinary, for example is there a vehicle, pedestrian or other obstacle parked or standing where you will be required to slow or stop your car? Reverse and turn around or continue driving if you are suspicious.

Does the driver of another vehicle - and this includes law enforcement - signal you to pull over?  Is there an obvious and valid reason to pull over?  Even if you have committed an offense or have been involved in an accident, particularly if you have been “bumped” from behind by another car, do not immediately stop.  Motion politely to the driver to follow you.  Then turn on your hazard lights and continue driving until you have reached the nearest safe location, such as a police station, or crowded well-lit area, before you stop your car.  

Identify in advance supportive police, hospital, military and government buildings along or near the route you often travel.  These may provide safe havens in times of difficulty.

Keep doors and windows locked. Windows should only be opened slightly.

Be constantly alert to what is happening around you.  Be alert to road conditions and to potential surveillance.  If surveillance is detected, seek the nearest safe haven.

Remain a safe distance behind the vehicle ahead of you to allow space for avoidance maneuvers, if necessary.  When stopped in traffic, leave enough distance to see the rear tires of the vehicle in front.  This will allow space to turn left or right and will reduce the likelihood of hitting the vehicle in front should you be hit from behind.

Report all suspicious activity to the appropriate agency security contact, embassy, UN agency, or local police as soon as possible.

Keep your briefcase, baggage, and anything valuable in the trunk or well secured, hidden and out of reach while driving and at a standstill.  Don’t put valuables close to doors or in view of passers-by.

How might you react to an attempted hijacking?

Under no circumstances is the value of a vehicle or its contents greater than the value of human life.

If hijackers are encountered, a driver must make an immediate appraisal of the situation and decide whether to stop or take evasive action. Weigh the costs and risks of being stopped and robbed, assaulted or kidnapped with the costs and risks of attempting evasive action. Hijackers are primarily interested in stealing easily handled valuables (e.g. cash, jewelry, electronics, etc.) and/or taking the vehicle.

In most cases it is advisable to stop and surrender possessions to the hijackers rather than risk taking evasive action and in the process being injured, killing or injuring a hijacker and still not getting away. It almost goes without saying that the hijackers are likely to become more hostile and dangerous than they would have been previously.

Stopping - if your vehicle is stopped by hijackers

Do not resist - keep your hands in view.
Do not make any sudden moves - be very careful when reaching to release your seat belt - explain what you are doing.
Keep the engine running, put the gear in neutral and apply the handbrake.
Swiftly comply with hijackers instructions - the hijackers are probably nervous and want to leave the area quickly. Leave the door open if they ask you to get out.
Surrender personal items such as jewelry, purses, wallets, and briefcases on demand.
Try to note how many hijackers, physical descriptions, clothing, and armaments without being obvious and avoid looking directly at the hijackers.
Do not provoke the hijackers with a display of anger, rude behavior, or aggressiveness. Be polite, non-threatening, and compliant.
Size up the situation and if possible negotiate the removal of the radio and agency flag.
If feasible, try to negotiate basic needs such as water and protective clothing.

Accurately report the incident as soon as possible when the hijackers have departed.

Fuel cut-off devices - should they be used?

There have been instances of car hijackings escalating into greater crimes once the victim rendered the vehicle inoperable by activating an instant fuel cut-off device. Victims run the danger of being harmed or even killed, or possibly kidnapped and forced to drive the hijackers to ensure the vehicle is not shut off remotely. So a cut-off device that operates instantly may not be helpful and it could be dangerous for the vehicle occupants to activate.

A variation on an instant fuel cut-off is a device which, once activated, will allow the vehicle enough fuel to run for several miles (about 15 miles, say) before the engine is starved of fuel and the vehicle stops. The aim is to put sufficient time and distance between the victims and the hijackers for the victims to seek safety whilst at the same time providing an opportunity for the vehicle to be recovered later.

Evasive action - escaping from a hijacking situation

Remember: under no circumstances is the value of a vehicle or its contents greater than the value of human life.

Escaping a car hijack attempt requires skill on the part of the driver and may risk injuring the driver and passengers.  However, you may be confronted with a situation where you feel that you have little choice but to flee.  If the opportunity to escape presents itself, if the driver is capable and not otherwise impaired, if all seat belts are fastened and if there is sufficient fuel in the vehicle, an attempt may be judged wise, particularly under the following circumstances:

•	Where known car hijacks in the area are accompanied by greater crimes - assault, kidnapping, murder or rape.
•	You are confronted by an angry mob.
•	You are in an area so desolate or dangerous that survival without a vehicle is equally hazardous.
•	The hijackers lead you to believe that stopping will cause greater injury to you or your passengers.

Consider, however, the likelihood that a failed escape attempt may put you and your passengers in greater danger than you would have been in the first place.

6.2 Fighting

When caught up in a combat situation your response may depend on who is the target: are you, personally, the target or is it your vehicle, your organization or someone else? Your vehicle may become a target if you carry government officials, people aligned with particular factions, or military personnel (even if they are not carrying guns). Therefore, it is important to resist carrying unauthorized, non-agency personnel. 

If your organization is respected as a non-partisan, humanitarian agency then clearly identify vehicles, buildings, equipment, staff and yourself as belonging to the organization.

Try to recognize the different types of shooting and bear in mind the context: is it the sound of a hunting rifle or an automatic rifle? Is the firing one of celebration or aggression?

There follows suggested procedures when fighting breaks out in your vicinity or when you are directly fired upon. These are suggestions only and actions will vary according to location, circumstances and past experience in the locality. Remember, a vehicle affords very little protection from bullets and may itself be the target, not necessarily you.

Cross-fire

- If shooting is in front of you, stop. When turning, reverse first to indicate a non-threatening maneuver. Be aware that the road verges may be mined.
- Drive away if the route is clear.
- Speed does not necessarily provide protection. Drive with care.
- If surrounded by shooting, stop the engine, take the key and radio, if feasible. Your vehicle may be a target, not necessarily you. So, get out of the vehicle on the opposite side to the source of fire and take cover. But beware of mined ditches.

When seeking cover from firing: dash for cover, get down, crawl, then observe where the firing is coming from. Try to withdraw.

Shelling/bombing

- Stop, take the radio, if feasible, and take cover as far away from the vehicle as possible.
- Stay put until you are sure the danger is over. Try to establish radio contact.

Ambush

The threat of ambush is always present when traveling through areas of conflict. Clearly, it is best to avoid traveling through such areas but to do your job this may not be possible. The steps taken to avoid, or mitigate the effects of an ambush will depend to a certain extent on the agency’s security strategy. Refer to the modules “Risk assessment” and “Security planning” for guidance on ways to assess and, possibly, reduce the level of risk of ambush. It may be considered that travel in large organized convoys can give some protection (see 5.5 Traveling in convoy in this module). If the threat of ambush is perceived as high then an armed escort may be considered. This is clearly a major decision and reference to the module “Armed protection” is recommended. 

There are basic guidelines to follow irrespective of your agency’s particular security strategy:
•	Obtain current intelligence/security information from your security officer, other drivers and people encountered during the journey, including personnel at check-points.
•	Attempt to vary routes, times of departure, check-points, etc.
•	Be alert for changes in familiar scenes along the route.  Watch the people.  If they are not acting normally and following their usual routines, such as farming, herding, socializing, walking, etc., there may be a problem.

An ambush can be initiated in a variety of ways: 
•	by an obstacle designed to slow down or divert the vehicle.
•	by a bogus staged ‘accident’ or ‘injured person’ designed to halt the vehicle.
•	by a vehicle hitting a landmine, or a landmine being set off remotely.  
•	by immediate, and concentrated, gun-fire aimed at the vehicle.

The terrain influences the location of ambush sites and it can determine the type of ambush: 
•	Poor road conditions require vehicles to travel slowly or lead to vehicles bunching together.  
•	Steep inclines limit vehicle maneuverability (when traveling up or down).  
•	Blind curves, or sharp 90-degree turns provide the opportunity to station firearms at the curve pointing down the road, and along one side of the road leading to the curve. This positions the ambush target in a kill-zone cross-fire.

The classic ambush formation is known as the “L-shaped ambush”. The majority of the ambush party position themselves parallel to the route (the vertical line of the “L”) whilst the others are positioned to form the horizontal line of the “L”.  The ambush commences once the vehicles are in the “kill-zone”. Those positioned along the horizontal line of the “L” fire at the rear of the vehicles on both sides of the road to block any attempt to back out of the kill zone.

However, an ambush may not be carried out by trained military personnel and, therefore, may not be well organized or proficient. The attackers themselves are also likely to be nervous and they may be unsure of their strategy. An ambush may be initiated by concentrated and terrifying gunfire but immediate evasive action could save lives.

The immediate response to an ambush is to drive through the ambush.  The attackers will very seldom position forces ahead of the vehicles or on opposite sides of the road for fear of killing and/or wounding their own personnel.  Human instinct is to stop, register, and then flee danger but the assailants will take advantage of hesitancy.

•	Thoroughly brief all drivers on the absolute necessity to move through an ambush.
•	If disabled, steer off the road to allow other vehicles to pass.
•	If disabled and other vehicles are moving through the ambush site, leave your vehicle and quickly mount one of the passing vehicles.
•	Respond rapidly to instructions from the team leader.
•	Remember and attempt to record details for the security forces.

6.3 Incident reporting

Since over half of all security incidents occur during travel it is pertinent in this module to briefly consider how incidents are reported over a radio network. For further guidance on incident reporting see the modules:                     and “Telecommunications”.

Incident reports given over a radio should be delivered in short clear phrases with due concern for security, accuracy and discipline (SAD). Concern for security is particularly important when it is necessary to transmit a message following an incident that may refer to combatants or give information on your location and activities that could further heighten your own insecurity.

Remember that following a tense and anxious incident it is often better to write a message down on paper before transmitting to ensure it is a clear message without ambiguity and with all relevant and important points covered. 

The following is a guide to giving an incident report over the radio:

WHO?	
Identify who you are by giving your name, agency and call sign

WHERE?
Your exact location (distance traveled, direction and landmarks)

WHEN?
Exact time of the incident

WHAT HAPPENED?	
Describe the incident, any injuries and those involved

WHAT ACTION TAKEN?
What you and others have done and are doing

WHAT DO YOU NEED?
What assistance is needed and any precautions to be aware of

 Appendices

Vehicle selection check-list

Key points to consider in the selection and specification of appropriate vehicles:

•	Visibility - do you want to be identifiable as aid workers in an aid vehicle? 

•	Vehicle condition and reliability

•	Standardized vehicle fleet  

•	Fuel availability 

•	Fuel - Diesel engines usually preferable.

•	Engine size and type - matched to the job and conditions

•	Two or four-wheel drive? 

•	Long or short wheel base? 

•	Tires - specify according to the terrain: tarmac, off-road, sand, snow. 

•	Spare wheels - carry at least two spare wheels.

•	Electric windows and central door-locking - useful or a liability?

•	Avoid automatic transmission - it is not possible to push-start an automatic.

•	High capacity long range fuel tanks 

•	Fuel cut-off - consider a hidden, delayed fuel cut-off switch 

•	Anti-theft devices

•	Warning devices - consider de-activating disconcerting ‘safety’ devices.

Appendix -	Vehicle check-lists

Key assessment: Daily vehicle check

Candidate’s name: ………………………………………	Date:  ………………….

	Item	Check	Review	Pass	
					
1		Fuel	Fuel tank full or sufficient for the planned journey. Jerry cans for fuel if necessary.
Fuel sedimentor and filter clear. 
No discernible fuel leaks.
			
2		Engine oil	Oil level at, or just below, fill level with vehicle on level ground
			
3		Other fluids	Cool coolant between minimum and maximum marks in the expansion tank.
Screen washer fluid topped up.
			
4		Battery	Battery connections and holding bracket(s) are good
			
5		Lights	All lights and indicators function, including interior light
			
6		Wheels & Tires	Wheel nuts. Tire tread depth, tire damage, especially sidewalls, uneven wear. Spare tire(s).
			
7		Horn	Does the horn work?
			
8		Tools and equipment	Jack, wheel spanner, first aid kit, seat belts, small tool kit, essential spares (e.g. fan belt)
			
9		Brakes	Hydraulic brake oil; Brakes work
			
10		Doors, windows and mirrors	Doors can be locked. 
Windows are clean and can be opened and closed. Wipers work.
			
11		Vehicle documents	Required vehicle documents are in the vehicle or with the driver
			
12		Start engine	Oil pressure and battery charging lights come on when ignition switch turned on but go off when engine running

Assessor’s name and status: …………………  Organization:  ……………………………

 Key assessment: Approaching and entering a vehicle

Candidate’s name: ………………………………………	Date:  ………………….

	Item	Check	Review	Pass	
	
On approach:
				
1	General check on approach	Area around the vehicle, including up and down the street, checked for suspicious looking people or objects.
			
2	Tires	Tires and tire wells inspected.
(Sharp objects in the tires or in the tire tracks).
			
3	Hood	Hood checked for fully closed and latch secured
			
4	Exhaust	Exhaust pipe examined for obstructions
			
5	Underneath	Under the vehicle inspected for suspicious objects/obstructions
			
6	Interior	Vehicle interior examined, especially the back seat and floors, before getting in

On entry:
				
7	Doors	Doors locked
			
8	Windows	Windows wound up - no more than a 75mm (3”) gap 
			
9	Seat belt	Seat belts fastened, except in exceptional circumstances
			
10	Trip meter	Trip meter checked or reset.

Assessor’s name and status: ……………………………….

Organization: …………………………….…

 Key assessment: Changing a wheel

Candidate’s name: ………………………………………	Date:  ………………….

	Item	Check	Review	Pass	
					
1		Immobilize vehicle	Park brake on. Everyone vacates the vehicle. Wheel chocks placed in appropriate positions.
			
2		Place jack	Jack safely in level position
			
3		Wheel nuts	Wheel nuts slackened
			
4		Raise jack	Wheel lifted off the ground by raising the jack. Vehicle stability checked whilst jacking.
Raised sufficiently to be able to place spare wheel with fully inflated tire.
			
5		Remove wheel nuts	Wheel nuts removed and placed in secure place
			
6		Remove wheel	Wheel carefully removed and placed safely to one side.
			
7		Replace wheel	Spare wheel placed into position and nuts screwed until wheel held in position
			
8		Lower jack	Wheel lowered onto the ground and jack removed.
			
9		Tighten nuts	Wheel nuts tightened
			
10		Wheel & tools	Flat tire collected and secured. Tools put safely away.

Assessor’s name and status: ……………………………….

Organization: …………………………….…

 Key assessment: Check-point procedure

Candidate’s name: ………………………………………	Date:  ………………….

	Item	Check	Review	Pass	
					
1		Spokesperson	Principal speaker identified before reaching the check-point.
			
2		Approach	Vehicle slows down. Sunglasses removed. Radio/tape turned off.  Stopped.
At night, headlights switched off before check point and interior light switched on.
			
3		Demeanor	Friendly and co-operative.
			
4		Remain in vehicle	Driver and occupants remain in vehicle unless strongly requested to get out.
			
5		Documents	Documents to hand and in order – passport, identity card, driving license, vehicle papers (registration, tax, insurance), cargo manifest.
			
6		Actions	Hands visible at all times. No sudden movements. Explanation of next movements. No bribes offered. Lifts refused.
			
7		Seizure of items	Strong, but calm and polite, protests at the removal/confiscation of any items from the vehicle or occupants.
			
8		After clearance	No looking back after passing through the check-point. Vehicle driven at a normal speed.
			
9		Reporting	Clearance of the check-point reported by radio when out of sight.

Assessor’s name and status: ……………………………….

Organization: …………………………….…

Glossary of Terms

Bibliography

Cutts M & Dingle A, 1995, Safety first: protecting NGO employees who work in areas of conflict, Save the Children, London

United Nations, 1995, Security awareness, an aide-mémoire, UNHCR, Geneva